The Employment of CALL in Teaching
Second //Foreign Language Speaking Skills

Julia Gong

ABSTRACT

The introduction of computers in language classrooms has opened a new door to both teachers and learners. Computers, accompanying software packages and networks can be used in a number of ways to assist language learning. The computer environment is highly motivating and less threatening psychologically. The emergence of the web broadens interaction to a great extent and enables learners to be exposed to a real audience. However, compared with how computers are used to enhance the learners’ writing skills, reading skills and listening skills, the application associated with the improvement of the learners’ speaking skills is rather weak. Nevertheless, the potential of the computer medium for the spoken language curriculum has been realized. Computer-Assisted
Language Learning (CALL), defined as ‘the search for and study of applications of the computer in language teaching and learning’ (Levy 1997: 1), has been used in pronunciation training, speech recognition and analysis, “voiced” dictionary, and as a stimulus to provide a speaking environment. This essay will therefore discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the utilizations of computers in
teaching and learning second language speaking skills, the actual application of CALL so far, and future trends, in the hope of drawing language teachers’ attention to the application of CALL in teaching speaking skills and provide useful information based on existing literature.

INTRODUCTION

In the last decade, the use of computers has developed rapidly throughout the world. For educational purposes, computers play a crucial role where they function as 'an added tool or resource, as a model or a real-world phenomenon or system, and as a training environment to prepare users for real-world tasks and experiences' (Pennington 1995: 11). With respect to second/foreign language teaching and learning, Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL), defined as ‘the search for and study of applications of the computer in language teaching and learning’ (Levy 1997: 1), offers an unrivalled range of possibilities to provide learning experiences that are impossible without a computer. In the past, language learning was restricted by the six-sided classroom and many language learners did not have the opportunity to interact with native speakers in a meaningful way. Nowadays, the CALL environment becomes an ideal safe haven for learners to practise interaction. The computers, accompanying software packages and network have been used in a number of ways to assist language learning.

APPLICATION OF CALL IN TEACHING SPOKEN LANGUAGE

The potential of the computer medium for teaching language speaking skills has been realised by researchers, programmers and language teachers. In second/foreign language classrooms, the CALL environment creates situations that stimulate interest, allows dialogue and communication, enhances reactivity, fosters a sense of personal worth, facilitates collaboration among students working together, permits rich learning experiences for all students and strengthens communication skills (Borras 1993; Pennington 1995, 1996; Cameron 1999; Hardisty et al. 1989; Inoue 1999; Kohnet al. 1997; Powell 1998). However, CALL speaking activities are still in the developing stages compared with those in reading, writing and listening. In fact, application of CALL in teaching and learning speaking is mainly decided by the nature of speaking itself. According to Pennington (1995), spoken language competence covers two aspects, ie the mechanical aspect and the meaningful aspect, which are summarised in the following diagram:

Spoken Language Competence
Mechanical aspect learn to discriminate and produce sounds of a language and tie these together prosodically in fluent strings of sounds comprising syllables, words, phrases and longer utterances or articulation and decoding of individual sounds (phonemes)

Meaningful aspect learn to build as well as to decompose grammatically coherent utterances and to tie these to communicative functions according to rules of pragmatic appropriateness in a given speech community Considerable numbers of CALL materials are produced on the improvement of the fluency and accuracy of the mechanical aspect of speech, using speech recognition and analysis technology, whereas the practice of spoken language is mainly accounted for by some well-developed software in discourse genres and topical areas, primarily by the creative use of computers as stimuli to generate interaction.
How computers, accompanying software packages and networks are used in the
development of language learners' speaking skills is introduced below.

Application in the Mechanical Dimension

The major application of CALL in the mechanical dimension is in pronunciation
training. New multimedia products incorporate extensive texts, graphics, animation, audio, and digitised audio or video clips. With some software, computers can produce relatively natural speech from individual phonemes stored as digital codes that are strung together by rule as the user types on the keyboard. This ‘synthesis-by-rule’ technology has the advantage that it can convert any text to speech (Pennington 1995) thus enabling learners to gain exposure to a diversity and quantity of input.

Unfortunately, computers do not always imitate a human voice very well. The
naturalness of synthesised speech varies according to the different quality of the
software or systems. This drawback is compensated by the employment of digitized audio and video files that provide a range of natural and authentic models of phonology for language learners. Programs using digitised speech are more comprehensible and stable, though less flexible. Digitised videos also allow learners to see how speakers speak, which is very helpful in preparing learners for encounters with real native speakers, since a great deal of face-to-face communication is nonverbal.

In relation to the articulation of sounds and words in the target language, which is
quite challenging for beginners, some types of software not only offer diagrams that translate sound into graphic representations, but also provide video clips or animation of the speaker's mouth in motion during the pronunciation of words or sounds, which visualises the articulation. This is impossible without the aid of computer. With these visual aids, the teaching of pronunciation is easier. Learners can familiarize themselves with the target sounds and discriminate like sounds. What is more, speech recognition technology, 'the ability of a machine to process spoken input and respond' (Healey 1999: 127), enables CALL software to include active participation in speech production, oral reading, and limited conversation in the range of language activities available to students. Having imitated models several times, the learners can actually record their own speech and compare this with the models. In addition, their performance can actually be evaluated by the computer. By combining speech recognition technology and speech analysis technology, which was originally used to remediate speech problems and now is applied in second/foreign language learning for phonetic analysis or training, a computer system can give learners real-time feedback with clear and interpretable visual images on the learners' performance in pronunciation. According to Aist (1999), pronunciation assistance by computer falls into three general approaches:
Visual feedback systems provide a visual representation of a student utterance.
Acoustic template-based systems match the student’s speech against a template.
Finally, model-based systems evaluate student speech using a model of student
mispronunciations constructed from multiple native speakers or from linguistic
knowledge such as common phonetic errors (166).

All the above-mentioned technologies are used more and more in CALL software and programs. A very good example of the application is software for computer-assisted foreign language learning called SLIM (Multimedia Interactive Linguistic Software) developed at the University of Venice, in which the Prosodic Module has been created in order to deal with the problem of improving a student's performance both in the perception and production of prosodic aspects of spoken language activities, tackling phonetic and prosodic problems at the word and segmental level, and with prosodic aspects at phonological phrase and utterance suprasegmental level. The program is able to detect significant deviation from a master's word/phrase/utterance production and offers visual aids and a written diagnosis of the problem as well as indications on how to overcome and correct the error (Delmonte 2000).

One of the greatest advantages of the application of CALL on pronunciation training is that it offers a private environment for working on pronunciation without fear of the number of repetitions needed for full comprehension or accuracy of production. In language classrooms, teachers are unable to repeat a phoneme, word, or phrase as often as the students would like. Whereas a computer program can provide endless repetitions and therefore meet the learners’ needs. Furthermore, the learners' anxiety and embarrassment about phonetic inaccuracies are greatly reduced. Some studies show that many learners feel more comfortable when they practise in front of their computers (Kataoka 2000). Learners can always adjust their own pace of learning.

According to Pennington (1995), since speech analysis technology is highly
motivating, even learners who had formerly shown no inclination to work on their
pronunciation will often willingly spend time working alone or with a trainer using this computer-based form of input and practice. However, more work is required on the further development of CALL materials in order to improve the mechanical aspect of speaking competence. There is occasionally some inaccuracy in speech recognition.
There is not yet a definite quantifiable standard as to how far a learner's pronunciation might deviate from the model and still be accepted, which thus influences the results presented in feedback to learners. The cost of some speech analysis software is still too high and thus beyond the means of the ordinary students or casual computer users.

Application in the Meaningful Dimension

Due to the complexity of natural spoken language, the application of CALL in
developing speaking competence in terms of meaningful dimension is currently
realised mainly by the simulation the CALL environment creates. There are some
types of software designed to allow users to "talk" to computers. For example, one
program named Conversations offers 14 dialogues in which the learners can
participate. This program features two speakers, and the students can take the part of either. Such software always covers practical language functions and various topics.

It also allows learners to choose a situation, study the dialogue, record themselves
and then play the recording back and compare it to the model. The software with
speech recognition and analysis functions can even give learners visual feedback.
However, computers are a long way from being able to understand and produce
natural, rapid speech on an unexpected topic. What software can do well at present is to set up an environment that encourages learners to speak and create a micro-world in which students can operate in the target language, both on and off computers. In this case, students work on computers rather than talk to them. The simulated world can take on a life of its own, making communication within that context feel authentic.

Take a class project for example. Students can create their own simulations and roleplays. In such tasks, students communicate with each other as they decide what the simulations should look like as well as during the simulation itself. They may need to write and produce an electronic play in which different characters have distinctly different voices. Some software provides students with raw material in the form of sets and stock of characters, and the students themselves must have a discussion, choose the characters, decide what the characters will say and do, and type in the dialogue. Such tasks are often carried out in pairs or small groups in which students take up different roles such as note-taker, keyboarder, timekeeper, and group leader.

Students will thus definitely benefit from discussion, negotiation, whole-text
reconstruction, the rehearsal of polite requests, suggestions, and advice – the social discourse needed for the group work. Teachers can help the students by introducing and encouraging them to use the vocabulary pertinent to the simulation’s content.

Well-designed software is not the only source that is used to enhance speaking
competence in terms of meaningful dimension. With the increasing use of the Internet throughout the world, language teachers and learners are provided with an authentic and stimulating conversational environment. The power, flexibility and interactivity of the Web make it an ideal medium for language instructors who are interested in providing in-class, out-of-class or even off-campus access to speaking practice materials. Compared to print materials, software and CD-ROMs, Web documents can easily be kept current. Students have round-the-clock and remote access, allowing them to work where and when they please. Since use of the Web materials is completely individualised, students can go at their own pace, and review and repeat as needed. In class, the Internet can be used to generate discussion. For instance, Voice of America allows users to hear its broadcasts on the Internet using RealPlayer.

Teachers can ask students to listen to the news, tell their classmates what they hear, and perhaps discuss some of the stories. What is more exciting in language classrooms is the introduction of video or audio conferencing over the network, which has been proved to be effective in developing speaking competence. With the advent of inexpensive computer-based video cameras, available software such as CU-SeeMe and Microsoft NetMeeting, and easier access to the Internet and other transmission media, the prospect for oral communication in the target language over distance has finally been realised. Users can see each other via video and use audio to communicate. Again, some students who might not talk much during speaking activities during the regular class are more willing to talk in a computerised environment.

Other features of the Internet such as email, discussion forums and synchronous
discussion can also help in the development of the learners' speaking skills. Although they are conducted in the format of writing, the informal style of "chat" quite resembles the oral interaction, and creates interactive communication. Pennington (1995: 155) argues that the development of such ‘conversation-like written discourse’ might have ‘a carryover to spoken language’. In synchronous discussion, students' comments can be read almost at real-time speed by other participants, who can then respond. For second/foreign language students, synchronous discussion has several advantages. Students can take time to frame their responses, allowing those who are less fluent orally to catch up with the fast talkers. In such discussions, more students can and most likely will contribute to the discussion whereas in an oral discussion in class is likely to involve a smaller percentage of the group with a few individuals dominating the session.

Phinney(1995) points out that more students will participate in an on-line classroom because several students can be writing their contributions at the same time. Multi-user object-oriented domains (MOOs) are also a great place for students to meet and interact with other people. It is hoped that one day real conversations on the web will be more common and easier to carry out in language classrooms so that the students can be exposed to an authentic conversational environment.

Application in Other Fields

Other applications of CALL in the development of speaking skills include an electronic dictionary, verbal command recognition, the use of speech recognition and analysis for assessment purposes, and the integration of speaking with other language skills.

In the pronouncing dictionary, phrases and words are pronounced by native speakers, sometimes by both an English and an American speaker, providing instant repetition or comparison. The structure of the electronic dictionary enables the replacement of traditional phonetic transcription with actual sound -- a decided boon for students unfamiliar with phonetic transcriptions. Similarly, the use of spoken commands in place of the mouse and menus has obvious application to pronunciation training: one can create interactive CALL ESL programs based on the pronunciation problems, in which the leaner must pronounce a command properly to get the computer to perform the desired action.

As mentioned previously, the speech recognition and analysis technologies can
provide spontaneous feedback to learners. These technologies can also be in oral
proficiency assessment programs. Assessment of learners' speaking skills is always done by human judges who are sometimes highly subjective. Existing work on automatic pronunciation scoring has mainly been focused on the word and phrase level, possibly augmented by measures of intonation, stress and rhythm. Witt and Young (2000) describe a system focussed on measuring pronunciation quality of nonnative speech at the phone level which aims to locate pronunciation errors, assess how close the pronunciation is to that of a native speaker and to identify systematic differences when compared to a pronunciation dictionary. Their research results indicate that a computer based pronunciation scoring system is likely to be capable of providing similar feedback to a student as a human judge with regard to which phonetic segments in an utterance can be accepted as correct or not. They suggest that future work should concentrate on expanding the algorithm to inform the student about which mistake he or she has made.

Lastly, the application of CALL in enhancement and development in second language speaking skills can be greatly enlarged when incorporated with other skills. In fact, the teaching and learning of speaking skills can never be isolated. Students need to listen to a model first, then they can start practising; they need to do some reading before they start discussion; they need to write down the dialogue they create or take notes during the activities. The integration of all skills in tasks is actually more significant in helping the students to become more competent users of their second /foreign language.

ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF CALL IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF SPEAKING SKILLS

The application of CALL in the development of language learners speaking skills is incredibly promising. Obviously, every coin has two sides. There are both advantages and disadvantages.

Advantages

Computer environment has great advantages for the students to develop spoken
language competence which provides safe, motivating and interactive environment, a great variety of resources, spontaneous feedback, exposure to real interaction, addresses to different need, and allows controllability over the rate of learning.

Firstly, the computer environment is highly motivating and offers a private workspace where learners can take risks and experiment in ways that might be psychologically threatening in a classroom or real-life communication situation. Many learners feel more confident when they practise speaking using computers than in a face-to-face settings (Kataoka, 2000). They feel free to pronounce without feeling embarrassed by their errors. In addition, provided with visual aids, students can practise more effectively and confidently. As Pennington has argued (1996), computer training systems for pronunciation seem to be one of the few environments where learners’ consciousness of their own spoken language errors does not interfere with their learning.

Secondly, the computer medium offers learners information in wide forms and formats to set up models, or support and contextualise interaction. CD-ROMs provide large and diverse forms of information, including texts, graphics, sound files, digitised audio and video clips, etc. that can be accessed for speaking practice. Learners can easily turn to handy reference sources, such as texts on grammar, lexis, or the culture of the target country. In other words, the use of computers offers more authentic examples of second /foreign language use.

Thirdly, the controllability of CALL materials allows learners to proceed learning at their own pace and teachers to arrange their teaching to meet different needs. The CALL environment can serve as a self-teaching system that adjusts the level of the task to fit the students' ability level. Using CALL, teachers can address different learning styles of their students through multimedia with pictures, sound, movies and texts offering different ways to deal with the same materials to suit various learning styles, which helps to personalise individual student's learning. In addition, in a normal teaching situation, it is impossible for teachers or native speakers to repeat a phrase without variation in its utterance or repeat as much as the students want them to. The same sentence in CALL materials can be repeated as often as is necessary for comprehension or perfect imitation, or can be broken up for analysis. Therefore the controllability of the computer environment makes teaching and learning more flexible and personalised.

Fourthly, many CALL materials can offer spontaneous feedback that can be used
both for assessment or self-assessment purposes. In many cases, this kind of
feedback can make the students' performance visualised by the use of visual images, eg. simplified waveform. The evaluation and feedback provided by the CALL environment, unlike traditional assessment, can be passed on to the learners without the threat of face-to-face confrontation or embarrassment, which enables the learners to take more risks in their practice (Borras 1993).

Lastly, networked computers enhance interaction between users and the target
language content, by putting learners in touch with other learners or native speakers of the language, and a multitude of other resources free from the restriction of time and distance. When students communicate on the Internet with other users, though in many cases, in 'conversation-like written discourse' (Pennington 1996: 155) rather than in real spoken form, they need to produce a considerable amount of output to have smooth communication which can be full of negotiation of meaning and thus facilitates learning.

Disadvantages

The application of CALL in developing second language speaking skills is
disadvantaged in several ways. Firstly, at present computers are unable to produce or understand natural language or have real verbal interaction with the users. What the CALL environment can do is provide a stimulus to generate interaction. Secondly, the quality and cost of available software differs greatly. For instance, some speech synthesising software might produce a voice with a mechanical quality that can be difficult for learners to understand. Some software is still too expensive for ordinary learners or casual users. What is more, the potential of CALL materials may fail to be realised in specific cases due to various types of misapplication or improper use (Pennington 1995). Correct and effective use of resources remains a problem.

Another problem that always arises in relation to the design and development of
CALL materials is the demand of computer memory. Speech analysis programs with visual graphics and the storage of the highest quality digitised speeches or video clips all take a great deal of computer memory, thus restricting the design of CALL materials. Last, but not least, teachers and learners should keep very firmly in mind that most exposure to the CALL environment is indeed ‘virtual’ and not real (Jones 1996). There is no substitute for actual human-to-human contact in learning a language. A computer program, no matter how sophisticated, is not the same as actual, direct exposure to another culture.

TRENDS IN THE FUTURE

CALL is a promising medium for the teaching and learning of language speaking
skills. Hopefully, in the near future, the CALL environment can process and conduct natural interaction. A well-designed scoring system can assess students' performance with high validity and reliability, and provide high quality, consistent, specific and constructive feedback in audio or visual format. Advances in storage technology will soon solve the memory problem. It is thus believed that the great potential and capability of the application of CALL environment in both teaching and learning is not measurable.

CONCLUSION

The CALL environment is highly motivating and less threatening psychologically,
which has greatly changed the teaching and learning of second/foreign language
speaking skills. However, compared with how computers are used to enhance the
learners’ writing, reading and listening skills, the application associated with the
improvement of the learners’ speaking skills is still rather weak. In a CALL survey (Levy 1997), under software categories, the rate for speaking is much lower than those for reading, writing and reading.

Language is basically speech. In all first language acquisition, the understanding and production of speech precedes that of written texts. People talk far more than they write and the importance of mastery of the spoken language as the primary objective among learners is confirmed time and again by surveys (Coleman 1991). Therefore, the use of the specific potential of computers in developing speaking skills and effective teaching with the existing computer-based environment require further study for CALL researchers, program designers and language teachers.

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